Summary Underwater Optical Communication (UWOC) is a type of FSO communication for underwater applications. The increased density of water compared to air makes challenges such as absorption, ...

Summary Mach-Zender Modulators (MZM) are electro-optic devices used to encode information into a laser beam before transmission, using materials such as Lithium Niobate (LiNbO₃) that exhibit the P ...

Self-Focusing in Free Space Optics and Nonlinear Media Self-focusing is a nonlinear optical phenomenon where a beam of light propagating through a medium induces a refractive index change that causes ...

Rayleigh Length Summary Rayleigh length is a fundamental concept in optics that describes how far a collimated beam, typically a Gaussian beam, remains tightly focused before beginning to diverge ...

Quantum noise refers to the fundamental limits of signal precision that arise from the laws of quantum physics. Unlike classical noise—which comes from external sources like heat, interference, or i ...

What Is Raman Scattering? Raman scattering is a physical process that occurs when light interacts with molecules and causes them to vibrate. Most of the time, light bounces off molecules without ...

Introduction High Energy Lasers (HELs) share many similarities with FSO systems, in that both have the purpose of providing light energy to a specific location at distance and operate on much the same ...

Summary A Gaussian beam is an electromagnetic beam, such as light, with a field distribution that conforms to a Gaussian function, similar in shape to a normal distribution. Its fundamental mode, the ...

Summary Rayleigh Rayleigh scattering is the scattering of light or other electromagnetic radiation by particles in the Earth's atmosphere that are much smaller than the wavelength of the light. These ...

Summary Fast Steering Mirrors or adaptive optics are precision-controlled, rapidly adjustable mirrors, crucial in Free Space Optics (FSO) systems for stabilizing and directing laser beams over long ...